static_cast
It is able to do the reverse of what an implicit conversion can do. Meaning: narrow (long -> int), widen (int -> long), base-to-derived, void*-to-T* for example. You can't use it for the stuff that an reversed implicit conversion cannot do. (I.e you cannot cast an int* into int).
dynamic_cast
It is used to cast a base pointer into a derived pointer. If the base pointer doesn't point to an object of the type of the derived, it returns 0.
It is used to cast a base reference into a derived reference. If the reference isn't pointing to an object of the derived, it throws std::bad_cast.
It can be considered the checked cast equivalent to static_cast, in that it checks whether the object pointed to really is of the derived type.
reinterpret_cast
It is used to cast a pointer type to a wide enough integral type and back to the original pointer type.
It is used to cast between pointer types of incompatible types (int* to double* for example). The result of that mapping is unspecified, but it's possible to do so.
const_cast
It is used to cast away const or volatile. It is used in the rare cases when you have a originally non-const object, which is pointed to by a pointer-to-const or referenced to by a reference-to-const. Casting away constness is considered evil and should not be done if it can be avoided.